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National Drinking Water Database

National Drinking Water Database - Chemical Contaminants

Thallium (total)

Status: Regulated - EPA has established a maximum legal limit in tapwater for this contaminant.

Thallium is a highly toxic metal that contaminates the environment due to leaching from ore-processing sites, discharge from electronics, glass, and drug factories and historical use as rodenticide [read more]

Thallium

Thallium is a naturally occurring metal found in deposits of ores containing other elements. Thallium is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, thermometers, photoelectric cells and optical systems. Thallium is also used in mining operations, as a catalyst in industrial chemical synthesis, and in medical applications for cardiac imaging. Thallium was used as an insecticide and rodenticide (rat poison), but its use for these purposes was banned in the U.S. in 1972 (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) 1992e, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2002m).

Thallium elicits some of the most complex and serious toxicities in living beings, involving a wide range of organs and tissues. Thallium is more toxic to mammals than mercury, cadmium and lead, and has been responsible for many deliberate, accidental, occupational and therapeutic poisonings of people since its discovery in 1861 (Nriagu 2003). Thallium is absorbed through the skin and gastrointestinal tract. The thallium ion has a similar charge and size as the potassium ion and its toxic effects may result from interference with the biological functions of potassium (ATSDR 1992e).

Thallium contamination of soil and water can occur as a result of coal combustion, cement production and industrial release of thallium from the mining and semiconductor industry. The U.S. EPA's Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) reported that industrial facilities released 98,062 pounds of thallium into U.S. water, land, and air during the year 2002 (USEPA 2009i). The major industries to report thallium releases were the copper smelting industry and the petroleum refining industry (USEPA 2002m). The thallium releases reported are a gross underestimation of the actual volume of thallium released into the environment, however, because thallium releases from coal combustion are generally not reported to the TRI (USEPA 2001a).

Chronic exposure to thallium can also result in a number of symptoms that include gastroenteritis, neurological disorders of the peripheral nervous system (polyneuropathy) and hair loss (alopecia). Residents living near a thallium-contaminated cement plant reported pain in muscles and joints, sleep disorders, and fatigue. Workers exposed to thallium for 16 to 17 years exhibited vascular system disorders and neurological symptoms (California Environmental Protection Agency 1999g). More severe cases of thallium poisoning following long-term exposure have caused hair loss, leg pains, inability to walk, nerve inflammation, blindness, kidney dysfunction, endocrine disorders, brain inflammation and psychoses (California Environmental Protection Agency 1999g). Thallium, in the form of thallium sulfate, was once used as a hair-removal agent in people until its high toxicity was recognized (California Environmental Protection Agency 1999g).

According to EPA, short-term exposure to thallium-contaminated drinking water can result in gastrointestinal irritation and nerve damage. Long-term exposure to thallium can result in hair loss and blood, liver, kidney, intestinal and testicular damage (USEPA 2002m).

In laboratory rats, thallium crosses the placenta and causes developmental toxicity in the fetus, including growth retardation and greater incidences of cleft palates and learning impairments (ATSDR 1992e, California Environmental Protection Agency 1999g). Reproductive effects such as decreased sperm motility and testes alterations have also been reported in rats exposed to thallium (ATSDR 1992e). Other effects seen in animals after high dose exposures include damage to the liver, respiratory tract, eyes and heart. To date, no cancer studies have been conducted for thallium, but it has been shown to damage DNA (ATSDR 1992e, California Environmental Protection Agency 1999g).

	Detected	Found above health guidelines	Found above legal limit
States	34	31	15
Water utilities	782	620	39
People Served	12,437,672	8,184,201	672,442

Health Concerns for Thallium (total):

Allergies/immunotoxicity
Neurotoxicity
Persistence and bioaccumulation
Developmental/reproductive toxicity
Occupational hazards
Organ system toxicity (non-reproductive)
Cancer
Biochemical or cellular level changes
Ecotoxicology

Thallium (total) Exposure by State

Water utilities in 34 states have reported detecting Thallium (total) in treated tap water since 2004, according to EWG's analysis of water quality data supplied by state water agencies.

State	Water Suppliers with Thallium (total) contamination		Water suppliers reporting Thallium (total) above health-based limits
State	Systems	Population	Systems	Population
Florida	118	3,890,606	71	2,488,261
Ohio	10	1,570,223	10	1,570,223
Utah	29	1,081,623	29	1,081,623
Wisconsin	213	790,983	197	735,861
California	57	2,923,484	26	452,412
North Carolina	11	299,108	11	299,108
Illinois	42	290,951	40	259,396
Indiana	28	235,856	27	233,557
New Mexico	80	374,649	40	205,326
New York	52	191,010	49	190,583
Oregon	1	169,962	1	169,962
Kentucky	7	109,441	7	109,441
Texas	38	100,489	37	60,121
Minnesota	2	56,620	2	56,620
Rhode Island	3	47,187	3	47,187
Arizona	3	42,818	3	42,818
Oklahoma	10	41,771	10	41,771
Massachusetts	7	27,268	7	27,268
New Hampshire	8	26,606	8	26,606
New Jersey	3	20,167	3	20,167
Pennsylvania	8	16,238	8	16,238
Idaho	6	14,940	5	14,540
Michigan	5	15,291	4	8,315
Connecticut	3	7,244	3	7,244
Arkansas	1	6,960	1	6,960
Delaware	5	14,228	4	5,028
Maryland	4	38,212	3	4,934
West Virginia	6	3,867	5	1,455
Alaska	11	13,991	4	603
Montana	6	3,366	1	500
Maine	1	73	1	73
Missouri	2	12,215	0	0
Nevada	1	126	0	0
South Dakota	1	99	0	0
Total	782	12,437,672	620	8,184,201

The Most Polluted Communities

782 water utilities reported detecting Thallium (total) in tap water since 2004, according to EWG's analysis of water quality data supplied by state water agencies

Ranked by highest average Thallium (total) level

Rank	System	Population Served	Positive test results of total reported tests	Average Level (Range)
1	Glen Canyon Ssd #1 Big Water, UT	470	1 of 1	3.15 ppb (3.15 ppb)
2	Kampsville Kampsville, IL	400	1 of 1	3 ppb (3 ppb)
3	Eagles Landing Spanish Fork, UT	170	1 of 1	2.8 ppb (2.8 ppb)
4	Aspen Ranch Loa, UT	190	1 of 2	2.65 ppb (0 to 5.3 ppb)
5	Millsboro Water Department Millsboro, DE	2,300	1 of 2	2.5 ppb (0 to 5 ppb)
6	South Beaver Dam Elementary Beaver Dam, WI	100	3 of 3	2.4 ppb (2 to 2.8 ppb)
7	Medina Valley Water Supply Co Castroville, TX	48	1 of 1	2.39 ppb (2.39 ppb)
8	Strawberry Point Prop Ow Byram Twp., NJ	95	1 of 1	2 ppb (2 ppb)
9	Edmeston Water District Edmeston, NY	490	1 of 1	2 ppb (2 ppb)
10	Colby Water Co Byram Twp, NJ	72	1 of 1	2 ppb (2 ppb)

Health Based Limits for Thallium (total)

Standard	Description	Level
California Public Health Goals	Defined by the State of California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) as the level of contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. For acutely toxic substances, levels are set at which scientific evidence indicates that no known or anticipated adverse effects on health will occur, plus an adequate margin-of safety. PHGs for carcinogens or other substances which can cause chronic disease shall be based solely on health effects without regard to cost impacts and shall be set at levels which OEHHA has determined do not pose any significant risk to health.	0.1 ppb
EPA Human Health Water Quality Criteria	Water quality criteria set by the US EPA provide guidance for states and tribes authorized to establish water quality standards under the Clean Water Act (CWA) to protect human health. These are non-enforceable standards based upon exposure by both drinking water and the contribution of water contamination to other consumed foods. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	0.24 ppb
Maximum Contaminant Limit Goal (MCLG)	A non-enforceable health goal that is set at a level at which no known or anticipated adverse effect on the health of persons occurs and which allows an adequate margin of safety. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	0.5 ppb
Lifetime health-based limit, non-cancer risk	Concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not expected to cause any adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects for a lifetime of exposure. The Lifetime health-based limit (or Health Advisory, HA) is based on exposure for a a 70-kg adult consuming 2 liters of water per day. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	0.5 ppb
Maximum Contaminant Limit (MCL)	The enforceable standard which defines the highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. MCLs are set as close to health-based limits (Maximum Contaminant Level Goals, or MCLGs) as feasible using the best available analytical and treatment technologies and taking cost into consideration. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	2 ppb
Drinking Water Equivalent Level	A lifetime exposure concentration protective of adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects, that assumes all of the exposure to a contaminant is from drinking water. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	2 ppb
Children's health-based limit for 1-day exposure	Concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not expected to cause any adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects for up to one day of exposure. The One-Day health-based limit (or Health Advisory, HA) is typically set to protect a 10-kg child consuming 1 liter of water per day. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	7 ppb
Children's health-based limit for 10-day exposure	Concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not expected to cause any adverse, noncarcinogenic effects for up to ten days of exposure. The Ten-Day health-based limit (or Health Advisory, HA) is typically set to protect a 10-kg child consuming 1 liter of water per day. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	7 ppb

Testing Summary for Thallium (total)

Are tests routinely required for Thallium (total) by federal law?	Yes
Water suppliers reporting tests for Thallium (total) (2004-2009):	29,453 of 47,576
Average testing rate for water supplier reporting tests (2004-2009):	0.3 per year

Violation Summary for Thallium (total)

Data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes the following violations of federal standards for Thallium (total) since 2004

Maximum Contaminant Level Exceedance Violations	6
Monitoring Violations	1,230
Reporting Violations	0

Allergies/immunotoxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
Human skin and immune toxicant or allergen - strong evidence	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database

Neurotoxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
Strong evidence of human neurotoxicity	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database
Strong evidence of human neurotoxicity	Chemicals known to be neurotoxic to humans
Moderate evidence of human neurotoxicity	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database
One or more animal studies show brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988
Limited evidence of nervous system toxicity	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database

Persistence and bioaccumulation

Type of concern:	Reference:
Not suspected to be bioaccumulative	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Developmental/reproductive toxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
Human nervous system toxicant - moderate evidence	Chemicals known to be neurotoxic to humans
One or more animal studies show reproductive effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988
Limited evidence of developmental toxicity	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database

Occupational hazards

Type of concern:	Reference:
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	National Library of Medicine HazMap
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to low doses	National Library of Medicine HazMap
Strong evidence of occupational hazards	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Single case study detailing occupational hazards	Frazier , L, 1998

Organ system toxicity (non-reproductive)

Type of concern:	Reference:
Possible human cardiovascular toxicant	CHE Toxicant and Disease Database
One or more animal studies show cardiovascular effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988
One or more animal studies show respiratory effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988
One or more animal studies show blood effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988
Classified as very toxic or harmful	European Union - Classification & Labelling
One or more animal studies show broad systemic effects at low doses	RTECS^®- Toxicologist 2003
Limited evidence of sense organ toxicity	Lu, F, 1991
Limited evidence of kidney toxicity	Merck & Co
One or more animal studies show classified as toxic effects at moderate doses (low dose studies may be unavailable for this ingredient)	EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs
Classified as not expected to be potentially toxic or harmful	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Cancer

Type of concern:	Reference:
One or more in vitro tests on mammalian cells show positive mutation results	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988

Biochemical or cellular level changes

Type of concern:	Reference:
One or more animal studies show biochemical changes at very low doses where the human health implications are not yet well understood	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988

Ecotoxicology

Type of concern:	Reference:
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants
Not suspected to be an environmental toxin	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Government, industry, academic studies and classifications

government/industry list/academic study	appears on list as	classification(s)
European Union - Classification & Labelling	THALLIUM	•Very toxic •Very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed •Danger of cumulative effects •May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment
European Union - Classification & Labelling	THALLIUM COMPOUNDS, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THOSE SPECIFIED ELSEWHERE IN THIS ANNEX	•Very toxic •Very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed •Danger of cumulative effects •Dangerous for the environment •Toxic to aquatic organisms
Canada - Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetics Ingredients	THALLIUM	•Prohibited from use in Canadian cosmetics
EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants	THALLIUM	•Priority water pollutant under the Clean Water Act
Environment Canada Domestic Substance List	THALLIUM	•This chemical was NOT flagged by CEPA for further attention. The chemical was flagged for suspected persistence.
National Library of Medicine HazMap	THALLIUM AND SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS	•Skin Designation (ACGIH) - Danger of cutaneous absorption (ACGIH): Yes; •Restricted - Regulations that have banned or restricted the use of the agent: Thallium rodenticides were banned in the U.S. in 1972.; •Hepatotoxin: Hepatotoxin, Secondary; •Neurotoxin: Sensorimotor Neuropathy; •PEL (OSHA) - Permissible exposure limit (OSHA): 0.1 mg/m3, as Tl; •Bioaccumulates: Yes; •TLV (ACGIH) - Threshold limit value (ACGIH): 0.1 mg/m3, as Tl; •IDLH (NIOSH) - Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health: 15 mg/m3, as Tl (soluble compounds);
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	THALLIUM	•Toxic, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxics Release Inventory programs
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	THALLIUM COMPOUNDS	•Toxic, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxics Release Inventory programs
DiPalma, J, 1107	THALLIUM	•Gastrointestinal or liver toxicity hazards: suspected
Frazier , L, 1998	THALLIUM	•Reproductive toxicity hazards: suspected
Klaassen, C, 1996	THALLIUM	•Cardiovascular or blood toxicity hazards: suspected
Lu, F, 1991	THALLIUM	•Skin or sense organ toxicity hazards: suspected
Merck & Co	THALLIUM COMPOUNDS	•Kidney toxicity hazards: suspected
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005	THALLIUM	• occupationally related - ACGIH TLV (human TWA)
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007	THALLIUM	• occupationally related - ACGIH TLV (human TWA)
RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988	THALLIUM	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (rat unr)
RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988	THALLIUM	• reproductive - Spermatogenesis (rat TDLo) • reproductive - Testes, epididymis, sperm duct (rat TDLo) • brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Alteration of classical conditioning (rat TDLo) • blood - Changes in spleen (rat TDLo) • brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Increased intracranial pressure ( human LD50) • biochemical - Multiple enzyme effects (rat TDLo) • cardiovascular - Other changes ( human LD50) • mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (rat unr) • respiratory - Structural or functional change in trachea or bronchi ( human LD50)
RTECS^®- Toxicologist 2003	THALLIUM	• broad systemic - Broad systemic toxicity (rat LDLo)

references

government/industry list/academic study	reference
European Union - Classification & Labelling	CPS&Q (Consumer Products Safety & Quality) formely known as ECB (European Chemicals Bureau). 2008. Classification and Labelling: Chemicals: Annex VI of Directive 67/548/EEC through the 31st ATP.
Canada - Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetics Ingredients	Health Canada. 2007. List of Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetic Ingredients. Canada's Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist. March 2007.
EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants
Environment Canada Domestic Substance List	EC (Environment Canada). 2008. Domestic Substances List Categorization. Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) Environmental Registry.
National Library of Medicine HazMap	NLM (National Library of Medicine). 2006. HazMap — Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Agents.
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Toxics Release Inventory Program. PBT Chemical Rule.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	DiPalma, J.A., J. Cunningham, J. Herrera, T. McCaffery, and D. Wolf. Occupational and Industrial Toxin Exposures and the Gastrointestinal Tract. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 86(9): 1107-1117. 1991. (Table 2: Selected Agents with Purported Digestive System Injury).
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Frazier , L. and M. L. Hage (eds.). Reproductive Hazards of the Workplace, Wiley Europe, 1998. Table 10 (Partial List of Reproductive Toxicants) available at http://www.pharmacy.ohio-state.edu/homepage/safety/chemhygiene_table_repro.pdf.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Klaassen, C., M. Amdur and J. Doull (eds.). Casarett and Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th Ed. Pergamon Press, NY. 1996.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Lu, F.C. Basic Toxicology. 2nd Edition. 1991., National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. See Environmental Defense's Suspect Hazard Identification documentation.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Merck & Co. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. TABLE 226-1. Common Nephrotoxic Agents http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/tables/226tb1.htm
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007
RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva. Neorganicheskie soedinenia elementov I-IV groopp" (Hazardous substances. Inornanic substances containing I-IV group elements), Filov V.A., Chimia, 1988. -,242,1988
RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva 1988	RTECS^®- "Vrednie chemichescie veshestva. Neorganicheskie soedinenia elementov I-IV groopp" (Hazardous substances. Inornanic substances containing I-IV group elements), Filov V.A., Chimia, 1988. -,242,1988
RTECS^®- Toxicologist 2003	RTECS^®- Toxicologist. (Soc. of Toxicology, Inc., 475 Wolf Ledge Parkway, Akron, OH 44311) V.1- -1981 72,22,2003

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