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National Drinking Water Database

National Drinking Water Database - Chemical Contaminants

Lead (total)

Status: Unregulated - EPA has not established a maximum legal limit in tapwater for this contaminant.

Lead is a metal that enters water by corrosion of household plumbing systems, discharge of industrial pollution and erosion of natural deposits. [read more]

Lead

Lead is a very toxic heavy metal that can cause permanent neurological and behavioral problems. Lead toxicity is manifested in virtually every system in the body. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) for lead in drinking water of zero - this is the level of lead in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health (USEPA 2009b). The state of California lists lead as a developmental and reproductive toxicant because of its potential for causing infertility and spontaneous abortion in adults and developmental defects in children. Some studies also suggest a relationship between blood lead levels and pre-term delivery, low birth weight and fetal growth retardation (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) 1999b, 2007b).

Lead can affect children at extremely low levels, and there is no evidence of a threshold dose below which developmental effects do not occur. Levels as low as 10 micrograms per deciliter (mg/dL), currently considered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as the threshold for elevated blood lead level, have been associated with decreased intelligence and impaired neurobehavioral development (ATSDR 1999b). Lead is "reasonably anticipated" to be a human carcinogen by the National Toxicology Program (NTP), based on kidney and nervous system tumors in laboratory animals (NTP 2002a).

Most recently, lead contamination of drinking water has been reported due to tap water treatment with the disinfection agent chloramine (USEPA 2007a). In 2009, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) scientists reported shockingly high lead levels in the blood of young Washington, D.C. children tested between 2001 and 2004, when the District of Columbia's drinking water was contaminated with lead from aging pipes (Edwards 2009). Unfortunately, this situation is not unique: similar results have been reported in Greenville, North Carolina, according to studies by Duke University researchers (Miranda 2007). Other areas in the country with lead-based service pipes distributing municipal water may be similarly affected.

Even after lead has been removed from gasoline and food containers, lead-based house paint has remained a common source of lead exposure, especially for children. About 10 billion pounds of lead paint were used in the United States between its introduction in 1889 and the imposition of federal restrictions in the U.S. in 1970 - 61 years after France, 48 years after Australia and 44 years after Great Britain. House dust is often contaminated by lead-based paint that is peeling or deteriorating, or is disturbed during renovation or the preparation of painted surfaces for repainting without proper safeguards. Soil contamination can be traced to deteriorating exterior paint or the past widespread use of leaded gasoline (ATSDR 2007b).

Lead was a major ingredient in most interior and exterior oil house paint before 1950 and was still used in some paints until 1978, when the residential use of lead paint was banned. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) estimates that three-quarters of pre-1980 housing units contain some lead-based paint, and that the likelihood, extent, and concentration of lead-based paint increase with the age of the building. In 1995, a federal task force on lead-based paint in the U.S. estimated that 6 to 16 percent of the nation's housing units contain lead-based paint hazards.

According to the U.S. EPA's Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), in 2002, industries released an estimated 441.8 million pounds of lead. Lead releases are spread out over every single state, with the highest levels in Kansas, Alabama and Idaho. High levels are also seen in Texas, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio. The largest industrial releases are from steel and iron industries and lead production and processing operations (USEPA 2009i). Additionally, urban runoff and atmospheric deposition are significant indirect sources of lead pollution (ATSDR 1999b).

	Detected	Found above health guidelines	Found above legal limit
States	39	39	-
Water utilities	15,750	15,750	-
People Served	101,369,947	101,369,947	-

Health Concerns for Lead (total):

Developmental/reproductive toxicity
Cancer
Organ system toxicity (non-reproductive)
Persistence and bioaccumulation
Allergies/immunotoxicity
Neurotoxicity
Occupational hazards
Endocrine disruption
Ecotoxicology
Enhanced skin absorption

Lead (total) Exposure by State

Water utilities in 39 states have reported detecting Lead (total) in treated tap water since 2004, according to EWG's analysis of water quality data supplied by state water agencies.

State	Water Suppliers with Lead (total) contamination		Water suppliers reporting Lead (total) above health-based limits
State	Systems	Population	Systems	Population
California	553	12,789,253	553	12,789,253
Illinois	1,196	11,228,655	1,196	11,228,655
New York	229	9,395,234	229	9,395,234
Florida	655	8,789,860	655	8,789,860
New Jersey	501	7,230,101	501	7,230,101
North Carolina	1,226	5,981,432	1,226	5,981,432
Texas	900	5,817,405	900	5,817,405
Washington	1,384	4,381,685	1,384	4,381,685
Kentucky	228	3,711,138	228	3,711,138
Missouri	1,377	3,430,929	1,377	3,430,929
Wisconsin	1,654	3,227,015	1,654	3,227,015
Arizona	380	2,704,593	380	2,704,593
Connecticut	462	2,650,234	462	2,650,234
Arkansas	646	2,500,486	646	2,500,486
Iowa	884	2,456,856	884	2,456,856
Oklahoma	307	2,326,065	307	2,326,065
Maryland	26	1,664,885	26	1,664,885
Nevada	26	1,591,306	26	1,591,306
Nebraska	516	1,386,304	516	1,386,304
Virginia	573	967,552	573	967,552
Oregon	30	851,798	30	851,798
Delaware	139	788,753	139	788,753
Michigan	224	710,990	224	710,990
Utah	26	710,756	26	710,756
Massachusetts	23	646,313	23	646,313
New Mexico	220	645,263	220	645,263
Montana	541	504,440	541	504,440
North Dakota	96	385,050	96	385,050
South Carolina	14	376,720	14	376,720
Alabama	35	343,004	35	343,004
Vermont	277	314,926	277	314,926
Alaska	22	249,580	22	249,580
Maine	195	238,190	195	238,190
Ohio	30	183,824	30	183,824
Hawaii	5	48,474	5	48,474
Idaho	5	46,986	5	46,986
New Hampshire	103	45,448	103	45,448
Rhode Island	30	31,566	30	31,566
Indiana	12	16,878	12	16,878
Total	15,750	101,369,947	15,750	101,369,947

The Most Polluted Communities

15,750 water utilities reported detecting Lead (total) in tap water since 2004, according to EWG's analysis of water quality data supplied by state water agencies

Ranked by highest average Lead (total) level

Rank	System	Population Served	Positive test results of total reported tests	Average Level (Range)
1	Epsom Healthcare Center Epsom, NH	226	1 of 1	121.3 ppb (121.3 ppb)
2	Killough Addition Houston, TX	80	1 of 1	121 ppb (121 ppb)
3	Pine Landing Condominium Freedom, NH	50	1 of 1	108 ppb (108 ppb)
4	Sand Point Water System Sand Point, AK	1,132	1 of 1	99.6 ppb (99.6 ppb)
5	Kids N More Daycare NH	74	3 of 3	95 ppb (41 to 125 ppb)
6	Festival Garden Apartments Syracuse, NY	72	2 of 2	83.63 ppb (37.25 to 130 ppb)
7	Anchor Point Watering Point Anchor Point, AK	348	1 of 1	82.6 ppb (82.6 ppb)
8	River Run Condominiums Bartlett, NH	675	1 of 1	81.5 ppb (81.5 ppb)
9	Maple Grove Mhp Burlington, NC	28	1 of 1	80 ppb (80 ppb)
10	Turner Square Apartments Turner, ME	63	1 of 1	76 ppb (76 ppb)

Health Based Limits for Lead (total)

Standard	Description	Level
Maximum Contaminant Limit Goal (MCLG)	A non-enforceable health goal that is set at a level at which no known or anticipated adverse effect on the health of persons occurs and which allows an adequate margin of safety. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.	0 ppb
California Public Health Goals	Defined by the State of California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) as the level of contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. For acutely toxic substances, levels are set at which scientific evidence indicates that no known or anticipated adverse effects on health will occur, plus an adequate margin-of safety. PHGs for carcinogens or other substances which can cause chronic disease shall be based solely on health effects without regard to cost impacts and shall be set at levels which OEHHA has determined do not pose any significant risk to health.	0.2 ppb

Testing Summary for Lead (total)

Are tests routinely required for Lead (total) by federal law?	No
Water suppliers reporting tests for Lead (total) (2004-2009):	27,406 of 47,576
Average testing rate for water supplier reporting tests (2004-2009):	0.7 per year

Developmental/reproductive toxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
Known human reproductive toxicant	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Possible human developmental toxicant	California EPA Proposition 65
Human reproductive toxicant - strong evidence	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens
Human developmental toxicant - strong evidence	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens
Limited evidence of developmental toxicity	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Limited evidence of reproductive toxicity	National Library of Medicine HazMap
One or more animal studies show reproductive effects at high doses	RTECS^®- Archives of Environmental Health 1971
One or more animal studies show reproductive effects at high doses	RTECS^®- Pharmacologist 1978
One or more animal studies show reproductive effects at high doses	RTECS^®- Federation Proceedings, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 1978

Cancer

Type of concern:	Reference:
Possible human carcinogen	EPA Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
Possible human carcinogen	Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens
Possible human carcinogen	NTP Report on Carcinogens, 11th Edition
Possible human carcinogen	California EPA Proposition 65
Cancer - strong evidence	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens
Limited evidence of carcinogenicity	Amer Conf of Gov't Industrial Hygienists - Carcinogens
Limited evidence of carcinogenicity	Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens
One or more in vitro tests on mammalian cells show positive mutation results	RTECS^®- Mutation Research 1985
One or more in vitro tests on mammalian cells show positive mutation results	RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya 1982
One or more in vitro tests on mammalian cells show positive mutation results	RTECS^®- Toxicology Letters 1981
One or more in vitro tests on mammalian cells show positive mutation results	RTECS^®- Toxicology 2003
Cancer - not classifiable/not likely to be human carcinogen	Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens

Organ system toxicity (non-reproductive)

Type of concern:	Reference:
Known human respiratory toxicant	EPA Hazardous Air Pollutants
One or more animal studies show metabolic effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- Gigiena i Sanitariya 1975
Classified as expected to be toxic or harmful	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List
One or more animal studies show classified as toxic effects at low doses	EPA Categorized List of Inert Pesticide Ingredients
Classified as toxic or harmful	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Limited evidence of cardiovascular or blood toxicity	National Library of Medicine HazMap
Limited evidence of cardiovascular or blood toxicity	Benowitz, N, 1992
Limited evidence of kidney toxicity	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center, 1996
Limited evidence of gastrointestinal or liver toxicity	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center, 1995
Limited evidence of sense organ toxicity	Klaassen, C, 1996
Limited evidence of respiratory toxicity	Nemery, B, 1990
Limited evidence of cardiovascular or blood toxicity	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center
Limited evidence of gastrointestinal or liver toxicity	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center
Limited evidence of kidney toxicity	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center
One or more animal studies show blood effects at high doses (low dose studies may be unavailable for this ingredient)	RTECS^®- Prace Nauwoke Uniwersytetu Slaskiego Katowicach 1982
reproductive - weight of evidence unknown/unassessed/unreview: published lit review or major tox study	National Library of Medicine HazMap
Classified as a low human health priority	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Persistence and bioaccumulation

Type of concern:	Reference:
Persistent, bioaccumulative in wildlife and humans	EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs
Persistent or bioaccumulative and moderate to high toxicity concern in humans	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List
Persistent, bioaccumulative in wildlife	Canada PBTs - Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET)
Persistent, bioaccumulative in wildlife	Great Lakes BTS (Binational Toxics Strategy) PBTs
Persistent, bioaccumulative in wildlife	EPA PBTs - Waste Minimization Program (RCRA)
Not suspected to be bioaccumulative	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Allergies/immunotoxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
Limited evidence of immune system toxicity or allergies	nternational Programme of Chemical Safety Environmental Health Criteria 180, 1996
Limited evidence of immune system toxicity or allergies	CARB, TAC

Neurotoxicity

Type of concern:	Reference:
One or more animal studies show brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect effects at very low doses	RTECS^®- Gigiena i Sanitariya 1975
One or more animal studies show brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect effects at high doses	RTECS^®- JAMA, Journal of the American Medical Association 1977
nervous system - weight of evidence unknown/unassessed/unreview: published lit review or major tox study	National Library of Medicine HazMap

Occupational hazards

Type of concern:	Reference:
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2006
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to very low doses	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007
Allowed workplace exposures restricted to low doses	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Strong evidence of occupational hazards	European Union - Classification & Labelling

Endocrine disruption

Type of concern:	Reference:
Limited evidence of endocrine disruption	Brucker-Davis, F, 1998
endocrine - weight of evidence unknown/unassessed/unreview: published lit review or major tox study	Illinois EPA Chemicals Associated with Endocrine System
endocrine - weight of evidence unknown/unassessed/unreview: published lit review or major tox study	Our Stolen Future Endocrine Disruptors

Ecotoxicology

Type of concern:	Reference:
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	European Union - Classification & Labelling
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	Illinois EPA Chemicals Associated with Endocrine System
Wildlife and environmental toxicity	European Union - Water Framework Directive
Suspected to be an environmental toxin and be persistent or bioaccumulative	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List
Suspected to be an environmental toxin	Environment Canada Domestic Substance List

Enhanced skin absorption

Type of concern:	Reference:
Suspected nano-scale ingredients with potential to absorb into the skin	Nanomaterial Database

Government, industry, academic studies and classifications

government/industry list/academic study	appears on list as	classification(s)
European Union - Classification & Labelling	LEAD COMPOUNDS WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THOSE SPECIFIED ELSEWHERE IN THIS ANNEX	•Known reproductive toxin •May cause harm to the unborn child •Limited evidence of reproductive toxicity •Possible risk of impaired fertility •Harmful •Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed •Danger of cumulative effects •Dangerous for the environment •Very toxic to aquatic organisms
Amer Conf of Gov't Industrial Hygienists - Carcinogens	LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS, INORGANIC	•Confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans (ACGIH classification A3)
Canada - Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetics Ingredients	LEAD	•Prohibited from use in Canadian cosmetics
EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants	LEAD	•Priority water pollutant under the Clean Water Act
Environment Canada Domestic Substance List	LEAD	•This chemical was flagged for further attention by CEPA due to suspected aquatic toxicity and persistence. The chemical was also flagged as a low human health priority.
Illinois EPA Chemicals Associated with Endocrine System	LEAD	•EPA: probable endocrine disruptor
EPA Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)	LEAD AND COMPOUNDS (INORGANIC)	•Group B2: Probable human carcinogen - sufficient data in animals (EPA classification)
European Commission on Endocrine Disruption	LEAD	HH-CAT3;WF-CAT3
European Union - Banned or Restricted in Cosmetics	LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS	•Prohibited in EU cosmetics: must not form part of the composition of cosmetic products
European Union - Water Framework Directive	LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS	•Priority substance in EU water policy
EPA Hazardous Air Pollutants	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Hazardous air pollutant under Clean Air Act
National Library of Medicine HazMap	LEAD	•Anemia: Anemia, Hemolytic; •Reproductive Toxin - A chemical that is toxic to the reproductive system, including defects in the progeny and injury to male and female reproductive function: Yes; •Restricted - Regulations that have banned or restricted the use of the agent: Organic lead was added to gasoline in the US until January 1996. Lead allowable in US paint was reduced to 1% in 1971 and to 0.006% in 1977. [ATSDR Case Studies, Lead Toxicity]; •Nephrotoxin: Yes; •Neurotoxin: Motor Neuropathy;PE: 0.05
Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens	LEAD COMPOUNDS, INORGANIC	•IARC Group 2A: probable human carcinogen (International Agency for Research on Carcinogens)
Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens	LEAD	•IARC Group 2B: possible human carcinogen (International Agency for Research on Carcinogens)
Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens	LEAD COMPOUNDS, ORGANIC	•IARC Group 3 (no cancer link)
EPA Categorized List of Inert Pesticide Ingredients	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Pesticide inerts of toxicological concern according to EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
Nanomaterial Database	LEAD	•potential nano-scale ingredient
NTP Report on Carcinogens, 11th Edition	LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen (National Toxicology Program classification)
Our Stolen Future Endocrine Disruptors	LEAD	•
Canada PBTs - Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET)	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Persistent toxicant under Canada's Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics program - targeted for elimination or reduction
Great Lakes BTS (Binational Toxics Strategy) PBTs	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Persistent, bioaccumulative toxicant - Great Lakes Binational Strategy, Tier 1 concern (highest), targeted for phase-out
EPA PBTs - Waste Minimization Program (RCRA)	LEAD	•Persistent, bioaccumulative toxicant - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, priority chemical for voluntary waste/emission reductions
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	LEAD; ROUGH LEAD BULLION	•Persistent, bioaccumulative toxicant - targeted for waste reporting under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxics Release Inventory programs
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Persistent, bioaccumulative toxicant - targeted for waste reporting under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxics Release Inventory programs
California EPA Proposition 65	LEAD	•Developmental toxin: California Proposition 65 •Reproductive toxin, female: California Proposition 65 •Reproductive toxin, male: California Proposition 65
California EPA Proposition 65	LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Carcinogen: California Proposition 65
Benowitz, N, 1992	LEAD	•Cardiovascular or blood toxicity hazards: suspected
Brucker-Davis, F, 1998	LEAD	•Endocrine toxicity hazards: suspected
US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center, 1996	LEAD	•Kidney toxicity hazards: suspected
US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center, 1995	LEAD	•Gastrointestinal or liver toxicity hazards: suspected
nternational Programme of Chemical Safety Environmental Health Criteria 180, 1996	LEAD	•Immunotoxicity hazards: suspected
Klaassen, C, 1996	LEAD	•Skin or sense organ toxicity hazards: suspected
Nemery, B, 1990	LEAD	•Respiratory toxicity hazards: suspected
Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens	LEAD CHROMATE OXIDE	•Reproductive toxicity hazards: recognized
CARB, TAC	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Immunotoxicity hazards: suspected
US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Cardiovascular or blood toxicity hazards: suspected
US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Gastrointestinal or liver toxicity hazards: suspected
US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Kidney toxicity hazards: suspected
Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Developmental toxicity hazards: recognized
Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Cancer hazards: recognized
Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens	LEAD COMPOUNDS	•Reproductive toxicity hazards: recognized
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005	LEAD	• occupationally related - ACGIH TLV (human TWA)
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2006	LEAD	• occupationally related - ACGIH TLV (human TWA)
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007	LEAD	• occupationally related - ACGIH TLV (human TWA)
RTECS^®- Archives of Environmental Health 1971	LEAD	• reproductive - Fetotoxicity (rat TDLo)
RTECS^®- Federation Proceedings, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 1978	LEAD	• reproductive - Biochemical and metabolic (rat TDLo)
RTECS^®- Federation Proceedings, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 1978	LEAD	• reproductive - Blood and lymphatic system (rat TDLo)
RTECS^®- Gigiena i Sanitariya 1975	LEAD	• brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Alteration of classical conditioning (rat TDLo) • brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Other degenerative changes (rat TDLo) • metabolic - Other metals (rat TDLo)
RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya 1982	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (rat ihl)
RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya 1982	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (rat ihl)
RTECS^®- JAMA, Journal of the American Medical Association 1977	LEAD	• brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Flaccid paralysis without anesthesia (usually neuromuscular blockage) (woman TDLo) • brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Hallucinations, distorted perceptions (woman TDLo) • brain, nervous system, or behavioral effect - Muscle weakness (woman TDLo)
RTECS^®- Mutation Research 1985	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis ( human unr)
RTECS^®- Mutation Research 1985	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis ( human unr)
RTECS^®- Pharmacologist 1978	LEAD	• reproductive - Behavioral (rat TDLo)
RTECS^®- Prace Nauwoke Uniwersytetu Slaskiego Katowicach 1982	LEAD	• blood - Changes in other cell count (unspecified) (mouse TDLo) • blood - Other changes (mouse TDLo) • blood - Pigmented or nucleated red blood cells (mouse TDLo)
RTECS^®- Toxicology Letters 1981	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (monkey orl)
RTECS^®- Toxicology Letters 1981	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: Cytogenetic Analysis (monkey orl)
RTECS^®- Toxicology 2003	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: DNA Damage ( human ihl)
RTECS^®- Toxicology 2003	LEAD	• mutagenic - Positive mutation assay: DNA Damage ( human ihl)

references

government/industry list/academic study	reference
European Union - Classification & Labelling	CPS&Q (Consumer Products Safety & Quality) formely known as ECB (European Chemicals Bureau). 2008. Classification and Labelling: Chemicals: Annex VI of Directive 67/548/EEC through the 31st ATP.
Amer Conf of Gov't Industrial Hygienists - Carcinogens	ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) 2008. ACGIH cancer classification system. www.acgih.org.
Canada - Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetics Ingredients	Health Canada. 2007. List of Prohibited and Restricted Cosmetic Ingredients. Canada's Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist. March 2007.
EPA Clean Water Act - Priority Pollutants
Environment Canada Domestic Substance List	EC (Environment Canada). 2008. Domestic Substances List Categorization. Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) Environmental Registry.
Illinois EPA Chemicals Associated with Endocrine System	Illinois EPA (Illinois Environmental Protection Agency). 2000. Preliminary list of chemicals associated with endocrine system effects in animals and humans (*) or in vitro (+). In EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) 2000. Handbook for Non-Cancer Health Effects Valuation, Appendix C.
EPA Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2008. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Evidence for human carcinogenicity based on 1986-2005 guidelines.
European Commission on Endocrine Disruption	EU (European Union)- Strategy for Endocrine Disrupters 2007. Commision on endocrin disruption requested by the European Parliament in 1998.
European Union - Banned or Restricted in Cosmetics	EC (European Commission of the European Union). 1999-2006. Enterprise Directorate-General Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics. The rules governing cosmetic products in the European Union, Volume 1, "Cosmetics legislation."
European Union - Water Framework Directive	EU (European Union). 2000. Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC ) - integrated river basin management for Europe. List of priority substances.
EPA Hazardous Air Pollutants	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. Office of Air. The 112(b)1 Hazardous Air Pollutants List (as modified). Last modified: 12 Dec 2005.
National Library of Medicine HazMap	NLM (National Library of Medicine). 2006. HazMap — Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Agents.
Int'l Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Carcinogens	IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). 2008. Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, as evaluated in IARC Monographs Volumes 1-99 (a total of 935 agents, mixtures and exposures).
EPA Categorized List of Inert Pesticide Ingredients	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1987 & 2005. Office of Pesticide Programs. Inert (other) Pesticide Ingredients in Pesticide Products - Categorized List of Inert (other) Pesticide Ingredients.
Nanomaterial Database	NanoWerk. 2007. Nanomaterial Database. Available online: http://www.nanowerk.com/phpscripts/n_dbsearch.php
NTP Report on Carcinogens, 11th Edition	NTP (National Toxicology Program). 2005. Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program.
Our Stolen Future Endocrine Disruptors	Colborn T, D Dumanoski, JP Myers. 2006. Widespread Pollutants with Endocrine-disrupting Effects. Updated from original listing in "Our Stolen Future" (1996).
Canada PBTs - Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET)	EC (Environment Canada). 1994. Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET). ARET substance list of persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic chemicals.
Great Lakes BTS (Binational Toxics Strategy) PBTs	Great Lakes BTS (Binational Toxics Strategy). 1997. Canada-United States Strategy for the Virtual Elimination of Persistent Toxic Substances in the Great Lakes. Appendix I - Level 1 and Level 2 substances.
EPA PBTs - Waste Minimization Program (RCRA)	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1998. Resource Conservatin and Recovery Act (RCRA) Waste Minimization Program - priority chemicals for elimination or reduction.
EPA Toxic Release Inventory PBTs	EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Toxics Release Inventory Program. PBT Chemical Rule.
California EPA Proposition 65	California EPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). 9/2008. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986. Chemicals known to the State to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Benowitz, N.L. Cardiotoxicity in the Workplace. Occupational Medicine. 7(3): 465-477. 1992. (Table 1: Chemical Toxins and Cardiovascular Disease)., US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html, A Relational Database of Hazardous Chemicals and Occupational Diseases. Browse Haz-Map by Adverse Effects http://hazmap.nlm.nih.gov/hazmapadv.html, Klaassen, C., M. Amdur and J. Doull (eds.). Casarett and Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th Ed. Pergamon Press, NY. 1996., Kristensen, T. S. Cardiovascular Diseases and the Work Environment. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health. 15:245-264. 1989. (Table 5: Classification of possible risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the work environment)., LaDou, J. (ed.). Occupational Medicine. Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, CN. 1990., Malachowsky, M.J. Health Effects of Toxic Substances. Government Institutes. Rockville, MD 1995., Stacey, N.H. Occupational Toxicology. Taylor & Francis. 1995.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Brucker-Davis, F. Effects of Environmental Synthetic Chemicals on Thyroid Function. Thyroid. 8(9): 827-856. 1998., Illinois EPA. Endocrine Disruptors Strategy. 1997. (Table 1: Preliminary List of Chemicals Associated with Endocrine System Effects in Animals and Humans or In Vitro). http://www.nihs.go.jp/hse/environ/illiepatable.htm, Keith, L.H. (ed.). Environmental Endocrine Disruptors. John Wiley & Sons, NY. 1997. http://www.wileyeurope.com/cda/product/0,,0471191450%7Cdesc%7C3037,00.html, World Wildlife Fund. Our Stolen Future. Widespread Pollutants with Endocrine-disrupting Effects. http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/Basics/chemlist.htm. The WWF list is derived from references detailed at http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/Sources/chemsources.htm and was originally published in: Colborn, T., F.S. vom Saal, and A.M. Soto. Developmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals In Wildlife and Humans. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(5): 378-384. 1993.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html, A Relational Database of Hazardous Chemicals and Occupational Diseases. Browse Haz-Map by Adverse Effects http://hazmap.nlm.nih.gov/hazmapadv.html, Klaassen, C., M. Amdur and J. Doull (eds.). Casarett and Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th Ed. Pergamon Press, NY. 1996., Landrigan, P.J., Goyer, R.A. Clarkson, T.W., Sandler, D.P., Smith, J.H., Thun, M.J., and R. Wedeen. The Work-Relatedness of Renal Disease. Archives of Environmental Health. 39(3): 225-230. 1984. (Table 2: Estimated Numbers of Workers in the United States with Potential Occupational Exposures to Known or Suspect Nephrotoxins)., Merck & Co. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. TABLE 226-1. Common Nephrotoxic Agents http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/tables/226tb1.htm, Stacey, N.H. Occupational Toxicology. Taylor & Francis. 1995.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. See Environmental Defense's Suspect Hazard Identification documentation., Stacey, N.H. Occupational Toxicology. Taylor & Francis. 1995.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	nternational Programme of Chemical Safety Environmental Health Criteria 180. Principles and Methods for Assessing Direct Immunotoxicity Associated with Exposure to Chemicals. World Health Organization. Geneva, 1996. (Table 1: Examples of compounds that are immunotoxic for humans or rodents).
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Klaassen, C., M. Amdur and J. Doull (eds.). Casarett and Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th Ed. Pergamon Press, NY. 1996.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Nemery, B. Metal Toxicity and the Respiratory Tract. European Respiratory Journal. 3(2): 202-219. 1990.(Table 1: Summary of pulmonary toxicity of metals).
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens (July 2004) can be obtained from http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html.-MC
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	CARB, TAC
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	US EPA, Air Risk Information Support Center. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/hapindex.html
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens (July 2004) can be obtained from http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens (July 2004) can be obtained from http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html.
Scorecard.org Toxicity Information	Proposition 65 List of Carcinogens (July 2004) can be obtained from http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html.
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2005
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2006	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2006
RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007	RTECS^®- TLV/BEI,2007
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RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya 1982	RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya. Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases. (V/O Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, 113095 Moscow, USSR) V.1-36, 1957-1992. For publisher information, see MTPEEI 26(10),38,1982
RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya 1982	RTECS^®- Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya. Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases. (V/O Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, 113095 Moscow, USSR) V.1-36, 1957-1992. For publisher information, see MTPEEI 26(10),38,1982
RTECS^®- JAMA, Journal of the American Medical Association 1977	RTECS^®- JAMA, Journal of the American Medical Association. (AMA, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60610) V.1- 1883- 237,2627,1977
RTECS^®- Mutation Research 1985	RTECS^®- Mutation Research. (Elsevier Science Pub. B.V., POB 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands) V.1- 147,301,1985
RTECS^®- Mutation Research 1985	RTECS^®- Mutation Research. (Elsevier Science Pub. B.V., POB 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands) V.1- -1964 147,301,1985
RTECS^®- Pharmacologist 1978	RTECS^®- Pharmacologist. (American Soc. for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20014) V.1- 1959- 20,201,1978
RTECS^®- Prace Nauwoke Uniwersytetu Slaskiego Katowicach 1982	RTECS^®- Prace Nauwoke Uniwersytetu Slaskiego Katowicach. (Uniwersytet Slaski w Katowicach, Prace Naukowe, Katowice, Poland) No.901- 1988- (505),53,1982
RTECS^®- Toxicology Letters 1981	RTECS^®- Toxicology Letters. (Elsevier Science Pub. B.V., POB 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands) V.1- 1977- 8,165,1981
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RTECS^®- Toxicology 2003	RTECS^®- Toxicology. (Elsevier Scientific Pub. Ireland, Ltd., POB 85, Limerick, Ireland) V.1- 1973- 187,183,2003
RTECS^®- Toxicology 2003	RTECS^®- Toxicology. (Elsevier Scientific Pub. Ireland, Ltd., POB 85, Limerick, Ireland) V.1- 187,183,2003

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